Assessing distal femur sexual dimorphism in a South African sample using computer tomography

ABSTRACT

¹Kristen D,

¹Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, School of Medicine, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Ga Rankuwa

Background

Forensic anthropologists are frequently tasked with creating biological profiles from fragmentary skeletal remains to aid victim identification. The distal femur provides reliable markers for sex estimation. However, in the South African context, existing standards for assessing sexual dimorphism in the distal femur have relied on a limited number of measurements from skeletal remains. To improve the applicability and reliability of these standards – particularly for fragmentary remains – this study analysed an expanded set of landmarks using contemporary 3D computed tomography (CT) models.

Method

Nineteen landmarks were placed on 3D models of CT scans from distal femurs of Black South Africans (50 males, 50 females), aged 18 to 80 years. From these, 15 linear measurements were derived and analysed using repeatability tests, Student’s t-test, Mann-Whitney test, and discriminant function analysis (DFA).

Result

This study established an expanded set of accurate, repeatable distal femoral measurements suitable for sex estimation, either as individual cut-off values or as part of discriminant function equations. Excellent repeatability was achieved by the measurements. Significant sexual dimorphism was demonstrated, with males generally exhibiting larger dimensions. The distal epicondylar breadth (DEB) achieved the highest classification accuracy – 81% in Black South Africans and 95% in White South Africans. Stepwise discriminant function equations improved classification accuracy in each population.

Conclusion

This study confirms the significant value of the distal femur in sex estimation, with the DEB in particular demonstrating robust efficacy in differentiating between males and females. More accurate sex estimation using distal femoral measurements, will significantly enhance victim identification and aid in resolving criminal cases in South Africa. The observed population differences highlight the necessity of developing population-specific forensic standards.

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PRESENTING AUTHOR

Ms. Daniële Kristen, MSc Anatomy, BSc Hons, MSc Med Sci

Lecturer, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University

Daniële Kristen is a lecturer in the Department of Human Anatomy and Histology at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University. Her research bridges anatomy, forensic science, and medical imaging, with a focus on population-specific skeletal morphology. She holds an MSc in Anatomy (with distinction) and is currently completing a PhD investigating clinically relevant dimensions of the knee joint in South Africans using CT imaging. Her work integrates traditional cadaveric methods with digital tools such as CT and 3D imaging to advance anatomical research. She has presented nationally and internationally on topics including forensic facial reconstruction and anatomical variation. Daniële is also passionate about modernising anatomy education, contributing to EU-funded initiatives such as Bakeng se Afrika and Dirisana+.

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